Figure 16: Expression of severity 1854 - 1856

Figure 16: Expression of Severity is one of many photographs made by French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne. Duchenne sought to prove that facial expressions were directly linked to specific emotions, and that these were universal to all humans. Influenced by the burgeoning field of scientific positivism, Duchenne used photography as a tool to document his experiments. Look closely, and you'll notice the metal rods which Duchenne used to stimulate specific facial muscles. These experiments were often conducted on patients with neurological disorders, who were believed to be more susceptible to electrical stimulation. This image raises ethical questions about the use of human subjects in scientific research and the power dynamics inherent in such experiments. How does it feel to consider the history of scientific exploration and the ethical dilemmas they can present?